LOS ARTÍCULOS: 7 PUNTOS

LOS ARTÍCULOS: 7 PUNTOS

REGLA 1

No se utiliza el artículo con nombres de países. Sin embargo existen algunas excepciones a esta regla, por ejemplo: the United States, the Netherlands, the Philippines. Otros lugares geográficos con los que no utilizamos el artículo son los nombres de los continentes, ciudades, lagos, montañas y calles:

► Europe, Africa, New York, Buenos Aires, Lake Michigan, Lake Geneva,
Mont Blanc, Mount Aconcagua, Fifth Avenue, Florida Street.

Pero utilizamos el artículo con estos lugares geográficos: nombres de ríos, canales, océanos, mares y cordilleras o cordones montañosos:

► the Amazon, the Parana, the Panama Canal, the Atlantic,
the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas.

REGLA 2

No se utiliza el artículo para referirse a sustantivos no contables (o sustantivos contables en plural) de una manera indefinida.

► the advice (el consejo) ◄ no es correcto
► the love (el amor, el cariño) ◄ no es correcto
► the letters (las cartas) ◄ no es correcto

Pero, sin embargo, utilizamos el artículo 'THE' en la estructura 'THE' + noun + a phrase para indicar a quién o a qué nos estamos refiriendo específicamente:

► the advice of a counsellor
► the love (that) Martha gave her children
► the letters on Manuel's desk.

REGLA 3

No se utiliza el artículo en ciertas frases preposicionales con 'instituciones' (por ejemplo. church (iglesia), college (colegio), home (hogar), hospital (hospital), prison (cárcel), school (escuela), university (universidad):

► My wife's in hospital.
► They go to church every Sunday.
► He's in prison for armed robbery.
► Go to bed immediately!!

En los ejemplos anteriores estamos pensando en la función de la institución. Pero cuando cuando pensamos en la institución como lugar específico, entonces utilizamos el artículo 'THE':

► Susan's in the hospital round the corner.
► I want to go to the church where the poet is buried.
► The conditions in the old prison were really bad.
► Don't put your shoes on the bed.

REGLA 4

No se utiliza el artículo con nombres de persona:
► Jane Fonda, Dr Valladares, Pope Paul.

Pero utilizamos el artículo 'THE' para enfatizar que alguien o algo es el más famoso de su especie o categoría:
► You mean the Jane Fonda?

Asimismo utilizamos el artículo 'THE' con títulos de persona:
► the Pope, the doctor, the Emperor of Japan.

Utilizamos los artículos 'A' o 'AN' con trabajos y profesiones (un aspecto gramatical que muchos hispano-parlantes no suelen recordar):
► Sandra is a doctor, Mike is an engineer.

REGLA 5

No se utiliza el artículo para referirse a sustantivos contables en plural, pero utilizamos la estructura 'THE' + an adjective para referirnos a una categoría de personas en forma global:
► the old, the handicapped, the homeless, the Argentinians, the Chileans.

REGLA 6

No se utiliza el artículo con determinadas expresiones de tiempo:
► at night, at sunset, before sunrise, after sunrise.

Pero con muchas expresiones de tiempo comunes, utilizamos el artículo 'THE':
► in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, in the past,
at the moment, during the day.

REGLA 7

No se utiliza el artículo cuando hacemos referencia al nombre de un deporte:
► I don't like tennis, Do you play football?

Pero utilizamos el artículo 'THE' para referirnos a instrumentos musicales:
► Jorge Essen plays the piano beautifully.

	Complete the sentences below using these words: PROGRESS, PERMISSION, HAIR, WORK, EXPERIENCE, AIR , INFORMATION, PAPER, ADVICE.
Examples: The room was very crowded. We had to open the windows for (some) air.
	1.	I don't think Ann will get the job. She hasn't got .
	2.	They'll tell you all you want to know. The'll give you plenty of .
	3.	You'll recognize Alan easily. He's got green .
	4.	Carla's English has improved. She has made .
	5.	I want to write down your address. Do you have ?
	6.	If you want to leave early, you have to ask for .
	7.	George is unemployed at the moment. He is looking for .
	8.	I didn't know what to do. So I asked Jack for .

ANSWERS

1.	experience or any/much/enough experience
2.	information
3.	hair
4.	progress or some/a lot of progress
5.	any paper or some/a piece of paper
6.	permission (not the permission)
7.	work / some work (not a work)
8.	advice / some advice / his advice

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Cuando deseas hablar acerca de una "posible" situación y sus resultados, debes utilizar una oración condicional. En las oraciones condicionales existe una posibilidad real de que suceda lo que en ellas se expresa. Existen DOS tipos de estructuras.

CLAUSULA CONDICIONAL IF + present simple CLAUSULA PRINCIPAL present simple

Se usa este tipo de oración condicional para hablar acerca de algo que siempre sucede. Es como una ley. En este tipo de condición if (si) tiene un significado similar a when (cuando): If people invite you to a party, they expect you to come properly dressed. (Si te invitan a una fiesta, se espera que vayas correctamente vestido/a) (= When people invite you to a party, they expect you to come properly dressed) (Cuando te invitan a una fiesta, se espera que vayas correctamente vestido/a) If you heat ice, it melts. (Si calientas hielo, éste se derrite) (= When you heat ice, it melts) (Cuando calientas hielo, éste se derrite)

CLAUSULA CONDICIONAL IF + present simple CLAUSULA PRINCIPAL WILL / 'LL / WON'T + infinitive

En cambio, se utiliza esta segunda alternativa de oración condicional para hablar acerca de un probable resultado futuro, es decir, que no es absolutamente seguro: If I wear the green jacket, it'll go with my new shoes. (Si uso la chaqueta verde, ésta hará juego con mis zapatos nuevos)

If you don't study, you won't pass the FCE exam.
(Si no estudias, no aprobarás el examen de First Certificate)

En estas oraciones condicionales generalmente podemos utilizar unless (a menos que) en lugar de la estructura if... not (si... no).

Unless you study, you won't pass the exam.
(A menos que estudies, no aprobarás el examen de First Certificate)
(= If you don't study, you won't pass the exam)
(= Si no estudias, no aprobarás el examen)

Unless I wear clothes like theirs, my friends will think I'm a bit strange.
(A menos que use el mismo tipo de ropa que ellos, mis amigos pensarán que soy algo raro/a)
(= If I don't wear clothes like theirs, my friends will think I'm a bit strange)
(Si no uso el mismo tipo de ropa que ellos, mis compañeros pensarán que soy algo raro/a)

Los ejemplos muestran dos patrones diferentes para esta case de condiciones. Sin embargo, son posibles también otras combinaciones de formas verbales.

If you get the chance, visit Buenos Aires in spring.
(Si tienes la oportunidad, visita Buenos Aires en primavera)

If you're not nervous, why is your hand shaking?
(Si no estás nervioso/a, ¿por qué está temblando tu mano?)

Las combinaciones posibles pueden llevar incluso verbos modales como en estos tres ejemplos.

If you have finished, you may go. >> MODAL VERB: may
(Si has terminado, puedes irte)

If you're feeling ill, you ought to see a doctor. >> MODAL VERB: ought to
(Si te estás sintiendo mal, deberías ver a un médico)

If Mirta, Ricardo and Miguel could do those webs, they can do anything. >> MODAL VERBS: could (past) - can (present)
(Si Mirta, Ricardo y Miguel pudieron hacer esas webs, pueden hacer cualquier cosa).

Los ejemplos muestran dos patrones diferentes para esta case de condiciones. Sin embargo, también se usan otras combinaciones de formas verbales.

If you get the chance, visit Buenos Aires in spring.
(Si tienes la oportunidad, visita Buenos Aires en primavera)

If you're not nervous, why is your hand shaking?
(Si no estás nervioso/a, ¿por qué está temblando tu mano?)

If you have finished, you may go. >> MODAL VERB: may
(Si has terminado, puedes irte)

If you're feeling ill, you ought to see a doctor. >> MODAL VERB: ought to
(Si te estás sintiendo mal, deberías ver a un médico)

If Mirta, Ricardo and Miguel could do those webs, they can do anything.
>> MODAL VERBS: could (past) - can (present)
(Si Mirta, Ricardo y Miguel pudieron hacer esas webs, pueden hacer cualquier cosa).

Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice
2. Passive voice

Active Voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:

active	subject	verb	object
		>
	Cats	eat	fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:

passive	subject	verb	object
	<
	Fish	are eaten	by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

	subject	verb	object
active	Everybody	drinks	water.
passive	Water	is drunk	by everybody.

Passive Voice

The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice.

The structure of the passive voice is very simple:

subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)

The main verb is always in its past participle form. Look at these examples:

subject	auxiliary verb (to be)		main verb (past participle)
Water	is		drunk	by everyone.
100 people	are		employed	by this company.
I	am		paid	in euro.
We	are	not	paid	in dollars.
Are	they		paid	in yen?

We use the passive when:

• we want to make the active object more important
• we do not know the active subject

	subject	verb	object
give importance to active object (President Kennedy)	President Kennedy	was killed	by Lee Harvey Oswald.
active subject unknown	My wallet	has been stolen.	?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).

Look at this sentence:

• He was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".

Conjugation for the Passive Voice

We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:

• present simple: It is made
• present continuous: It is being made
• present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive		to be washed
simple	present	It is washed.
	past	It was washed.
	future	It will be washed.
	conditional	It would be washed.
continuous	present	It is being washed.
	past	It was being washed.
	future	It will be being washed.
	conditional	It would be being washed.
perfect simple	present	It has been washed.
	past	It had been washed.
	future	It will have been washed.
	conditional	It would have been washed.
perfect continuous	present	It has been being washed.
	past	It had been being washed.
	future	It will have been being washed.
	conditional	It would have been being washed.